Internal Resource

• Overview
• ML Algorithms
• SnapChat interview
  • Catch all links
• ChatGPT vs GPT3
• Generating music with text or images
• Stable Diffusion
  • How to generate animation with Stable Diffusion
  • 🚀 Stable diffusion stands out among diffusion models, Here is Why.
• ML Youtube channels
• DALLE-2
• Forward-Forward Algorithm
• ChatGPT
• ML for Ads Ranking RecSys
• Is PageRank still used at Google
• CLIP
• Quick Feature Selection Method
• Overfitting
• Pruning
• Information Retrieval Metrics
• XGBoost
• Data Parallelization by Sebastian Raschka
• Top 5 basic checks when trianing deep learning models
• A list of 5 techniques to optimize deep neural network model performance during inference
• Links for MLOPS
• Architecture
• Recommender Engine
• How to detect Data Drift
• How to decompose Bias and Variance from the Data
• Feature Selection Method
• Self Instruct aligning language models with self generated instructions

Overview

• The content below is a work in progress and is a collection of content from Damien Benveniste’s linkedIn posts that can be found here and Prithivi Da.
• Content is also from Sebastian Raschka

ML Algorithms

SnapChat interview

• Friend recommendation and the Discover platform can be combined at Snapchat to provide users with personalized content recommendations from both their friends and the broader content ecosystem. By integrating the two, Snapchat can leverage the power of Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to enhance the content discovery experience.
• Here’s how the combination of friend recommendation and the Discover platform could work:
• User-Friend Graph: Snapchat maintains a user-friend graph, representing the social connections between users. This graph captures the relationships between friends, as well as their interactions and behaviors on the platform.
• Friend Recommendation: GNNs can be employed to generate user embeddings that capture the characteristics, interests, and behaviors of users within the friend network. These embeddings can be used to suggest potential new friends or connections based on mutual interests, shared connections, or similar usage patterns.
• Content Recommendation: GNNs can also be utilized to learn representations of content items available on the Discover platform. These representations can capture the relevance, popularity, and user interactions with the content.
• Personalized Recommendations: By combining the user embeddings from friend recommendation and the content item representations, Snapchat can provide personalized recommendations that integrate both friend-generated content and content from the Discover platform. This means users can receive recommendations for content that aligns with their interests, while also incorporating content that their friends engage with or find interesting.
• Enhanced Engagement: The combination of friend recommendation and the Discover platform can enhance user engagement by offering a more comprehensive and tailored content experience. Users can discover new content from their friends, as well as explore a broader range of content from publishers and creators on the Discover platform.

• By leveraging GNNs to power both friend recommendation and content recommendation algorithms, Snapchat can create a unified and personalized recommendation system that leverages the social graph and user preferences to deliver engaging and relevant content to its users.

• User Embeddings: GNNs can be employed to learn embeddings for users in the friend graph. These embeddings capture the characteristics and behaviors of each user based on their interactions, interests, and connections within the network. By representing users in a low-dimensional embedding space, GNNs enable efficient similarity calculations and personalized recommendations.
• Graph Propagation: GNNs leverage the power of graph propagation to aggregate information from a user’s immediate connections (friends) and propagate it to generate personalized embeddings. During the propagation process, information from neighboring nodes is combined to update the embedding of a target user. This allows for the incorporation of social influence and shared interests into the personalized recommendations.
• Feature Integration: GNNs can incorporate various features and attributes of users and content items into the recommendation process. These features can include demographic information, past interactions, content preferences, and friend connections. By considering these features alongside the graph structure, GNNs can capture complex relationships and make more accurate personalized recommendations.
• Hybrid Approaches: Snapchat can adopt hybrid approaches that combine collaborative filtering and content-based methods within the GNN framework. Collaborative filtering analyzes user behavior and similarity to recommend content that similar users have engaged with. Content-based methods, on the other hand, recommend items based on the characteristics and attributes of the items themselves. By combining both approaches, Snapchat can provide personalized recommendations that consider both user preferences and content relevance.
• Incremental Learning: GNNs can be trained in an incremental manner, allowing the recommendation system to continuously adapt and improve as new data becomes available. This is particularly important in dynamic social networks like Snapchat, where user preferences and connections can change over time. Incremental learning enables the recommendation system to stay up-to-date and provide personalized recommendations that reflect the evolving interests of users.

• By utilizing these technical aspects of GNNs, Snapchat can personalize friend recommendations and content recommendations by considering factors such as user behavior, social connections, content preferences, and item characteristics. This approach allows for more accurate and relevant recommendations, leading to enhanced user engagement and satisfaction on the platform.

• In the context of friend recommendations and content recommendations using Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) at Snapchat, various loss functions and evaluation metrics can be employed to train and assess the performance of the recommendation system. Here are some commonly used ones:

• Loss Functions:
  1. Ranking Loss: Ranking loss functions are commonly used in recommendation systems to optimize the order of recommendations. Examples include the pairwise ranking loss (e.g., pairwise logistic loss or hinge loss) and the listwise ranking loss (e.g., Softmax loss or ListNet loss). These losses aim to minimize the discrepancy between the predicted ranking of items and the ground truth rankings based on user interactions.
  2. Reconstruction Loss: In some cases, GNNs are used to reconstruct the input graph or predict missing links in the graph. In such scenarios, reconstruction losses like the binary cross-entropy loss or mean squared error loss can be employed to measure the difference between the predicted graph structure and the ground truth.
• Evaluation Metrics:
  1. Precision at K (P@K): Precision at K measures the proportion of relevant recommendations in the top K predictions. It assesses how well the recommendation system identifies relevant items among the top K recommendations.
  2. Recall at K (R@K): Recall at K measures the proportion of relevant items retrieved among all relevant items. It evaluates the ability of the recommendation system to retrieve all relevant items within the top K predictions.
  3. Mean Average Precision (MAP): MAP calculates the average precision for each user by considering the relevance of recommended items at different positions in the ranking. It summarizes the overall performance of the recommendation system in terms of both precision and ranking order.
  4. Normalized Discounted Cumulative Gain (NDCG): NDCG evaluates the quality of the recommendation list by considering the relevance of items at different positions in the ranking. It discounts the importance of items lower in the ranking and provides a more comprehensive assessment of the system’s performance.
  5. Hit Rate: Hit Rate measures the proportion of users for whom at least one relevant item is present in the recommendation list. It indicates the system’s ability to provide satisfactory recommendations to a significant portion of users.

The choice of loss functions and evaluation metrics depends on the specific objectives and characteristics of the recommendation system. Snapchat can customize and combine these metrics to optimize the performance of its friend recommendation and content recommendation algorithms, ensuring that the recommendations are personalized, relevant, and engaging for its users.

In friend recommendation systems using Graph Neural Networks (GNNs), candidate generation refers to the process of selecting potential friends for a given user. It involves identifying a set of users who are likely to be a good match or have a high probability of being friends with the target user.

The candidate generation process typically involves the following steps:

Graph Traversal: GNNs are capable of traversing the social graph to explore connections and relationships between users. Starting from the target user, the GNN propagates information through the graph to capture the neighborhood structure and gather information about potential candidates. Embedding Generation: GNNs learn low-dimensional embeddings for each user in the graph. These embeddings capture the user’s characteristics, preferences, and social connections in a compact representation. The embeddings are learned through the iterative message passing process of the GNN, where information is exchanged between connected nodes in the graph. Similarity Calculation: Once the user embeddings are generated, the next step is to calculate the similarity between the target user and other users in the graph. Various similarity metrics can be used, such as cosine similarity or Euclidean distance, to measure the proximity or similarity between user embeddings. Ranking: Based on the calculated similarities, a ranking is performed to prioritize the candidate users. Users with higher similarity scores or closer embeddings to the target user are considered more likely to be friends. The top-ranked candidates are then selected as potential friends for the target user. The candidate generation process can be further optimized using approximate nearest neighbor search techniques. These techniques enable efficient retrieval of similar user embeddings from a large set of candidates. Libraries such as Hnswlib or FAISS provide efficient algorithms for approximate nearest neighbor search, which can be utilized to speed up the candidate generation process.

It’s important to note that the candidate generation process is just the initial step in friend recommendation. Subsequent steps, such as candidate filtering, friend verification, and recommendation ranking, are performed to refine the list of recommended friends and present the most relevant and personalized recommendations to the user.

In the context of Snapchat, Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) can be used for various tasks, including friend recommendation and personalized discovery. Here’s how it could work for Snapchat:

1. Friend Recommendation: GNNs can be utilized to suggest potential friends to Snapchat users based on their social graph and user behavior. The GNN model would learn representations of users and their connections by performing message passing and aggregation operations on the graph. The model would consider various factors such as mutual friends, interaction patterns, and shared interests to identify users who are likely to be friends. The GNN model would generate personalized friend recommendations by finding users with similar embeddings to the target user and suggesting them as potential friends.

2. Personalized Discovery: GNNs can also enhance the personalized discovery experience on Snapchat. The model can learn representations of users and content items such as stories, lenses, filters, or Discover articles. By leveraging the user’s social graph and interaction history, the GNN can identify relevant content items that align with the user’s preferences. The GNN model would analyze the embeddings of content items and recommend those that are similar to the user’s interests and preferences, resulting in a personalized discovery feed.

In both cases, the GNN model would be trained using appropriate loss functions and evaluation metrics. For example, in friend recommendation, the model could use a pairwise ranking loss, such as the pairwise hinge loss or the pairwise cross-entropy loss, to compare the similarity between positive and negative friend candidates. Evaluation metrics such as precision, recall, and F1 score can be used to assess the quality of friend recommendations.

Similarly, in personalized discovery, the model could use a suitable loss function like the cross-entropy loss to compare the predicted relevance of recommended content items to the user’s actual interactions. Evaluation metrics such as click-through rate (CTR), engagement rate, or user satisfaction surveys can be used to measure the effectiveness of the personalized discovery system.

Overall, GNNs can enhance the friend recommendation and personalized discovery experience on Snapchat by leveraging the power of graph-based representations and capturing the relationships and preferences among users and content items.

In Snapchat, message passing in Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) can be employed to capture and propagate information across the social graph for various tasks. Here’s a high-level explanation of how message passing could work for Snapchat:

1. Friend Recommendation: To recommend potential friends to a user, the GNN model would perform message passing between connected nodes in the social graph. At each node, the model would aggregate information from its neighboring nodes, incorporating features such as mutual friends, interaction history, and shared interests. This aggregation step allows the node to gather information from its immediate connections.

2. Personalized Discovery: For personalized content discovery, the GNN model would propagate messages across the social graph to capture user preferences and interests. As messages pass through the graph, they carry information about user interactions, content features, and other relevant metadata. The model would aggregate and update the representations of users and content items based on these messages, capturing personalized signals and preferences.

The process of message passing typically involves several steps:

1. Initialization: Each node in the graph, representing a user or content item, is assigned an initial embedding or feature vector.

2. Message Computation: At each node, messages are computed based on the embeddings of neighboring nodes and the relationship between them. These messages can capture information such as similarity, influence, or relevance.

3. Message Aggregation: After computing the messages, each node aggregates the received messages, typically using a pooling or aggregation function. This step combines information from multiple neighbors, allowing nodes to incorporate knowledge from their local neighborhood.

4. Update: The aggregated messages are then used to update the node’s embedding or feature vector. This update step allows nodes to adjust their representations based on the aggregated information from their neighbors.

5. Iteration: The message passing process is repeated for multiple iterations, allowing nodes to exchange information and refine their embeddings. Each iteration enables nodes to consider information from farther neighbors and capture higher-order relationships.

The number of iterations and the specific aggregation and update functions used in message passing can vary depending on the GNN architecture and task at hand. By leveraging message passing, GNNs in Snapchat can effectively capture and propagate personalized information, enabling tasks such as friend recommendation and personalized content discovery.

Scoring in Snapchat involves assigning a relevance or quality score to candidate friends, content items, or recommendations based on various factors. The scoring process aims to prioritize the most relevant and engaging options for each user. Here’s a general overview of how scoring could work in Snapchat:

1. Friend Recommendation: When generating friend recommendations, the GNN-based model produces a list of potential friends for a given user. Each candidate friend is assigned a score based on their compatibility with the user. The scoring can consider factors such as mutual connections, shared interests, geographic proximity, and user preferences. The model may use learned weights and feature importance to compute a relevance score for each candidate friend.

2. Content Scoring: In the context of personalized content discovery, Snapchat may employ a scoring mechanism to rank and recommend content items to users. The scoring process takes into account user preferences, engagement history, content features, and other relevant signals. The GNN model can leverage the user-item interactions, content attributes, and user embeddings learned through message passing to compute a score for each content item. The score reflects the estimated level of user interest or likelihood of engagement with the content.

The specific scoring algorithm can vary depending on the task and the available data. Common approaches for scoring include:

• Weighted Sum: Assigning weights to different features or factors and computing a weighted sum to obtain the final score. The weights can be learned during training based on their importance in predicting user preferences or engagement.

• Neural Network Scoring: Utilizing a neural network model, which takes input features (e.g., user embeddings, content attributes) and produces a score as its output. The network can have multiple layers, non-linear activations, and can be trained using techniques such as backpropagation and gradient descent.

• Rank-based Scoring: Ranking candidates or content items based on their relevance to the user. This can involve comparing pairs of candidates or items and assigning them relative rankings, such as using pairwise ranking methods like pairwise comparison or the use of ranking loss functions.

It’s important to note that the scoring mechanism in Snapchat is likely to be highly personalized, taking into account user-specific preferences, engagement patterns, and contextual information. The GNN-based models, along with other machine learning techniques, contribute to the process by capturing user behavior, relationships, and preferences to inform the scoring and recommendation algorithms.

After scoring the candidates or content items, the next step in the recommendation process at Snapchat would involve retrieval. Retrieval refers to the process of selecting a subset of top-scoring candidates or content items to present to the user. Here’s how retrieval could work at Snapchat:

1. Candidate Ranking: The scored candidates or content items are sorted in descending order based on their scores. The highest-scoring candidates are placed at the top of the ranking. This ranking is determined by the scoring mechanism, which incorporates various factors and algorithms, as mentioned earlier.

2. Filtering and Thresholding: To narrow down the list of candidates or content items, Snapchat may apply additional filters and thresholds. These filters can be based on factors such as user preferences, content relevance, diversity, freshness, or other business-specific considerations. For example, Snapchat might exclude candidates or content items that do not meet certain criteria, such as a minimum score threshold or specific content policies.

3. Retrieval Limit: Since presenting an overwhelming number of recommendations to the user is not ideal, Snapchat sets a limit on the number of candidates or content items to retrieve. This limit ensures a manageable and personalized set of recommendations that can be effectively presented to the user.

4. Personalization: Snapchat takes into account the user’s preferences and interests to personalize the retrieval process. User-specific factors, such as past interactions, engagement patterns, demographic information, and contextual signals, may influence the retrieval strategy. The goal is to surface the most relevant and engaging recommendations for each individual user.

5. Real-Time Considerations: Snapchat operates in real-time, so the retrieval process needs to be efficient and scalable. The retrieval system should be capable of handling high traffic and query volumes, ensuring fast response times to deliver recommendations in a timely manner.

It’s worth noting that the retrieval process in Snapchat is likely to be dynamic and continuously evolving. Snapchat may employ techniques such as online learning, A/B testing, and feedback loops to improve the retrieval algorithms over time. By analyzing user feedback, interactions, and performance metrics, Snapchat can iteratively refine the retrieval process to enhance the relevance and quality of recommendations for its users.

Handling data drift is an important aspect of recommendation systems at Snapchat or any other platform that operates in a dynamic environment. Data drift refers to the changes in user preferences, behavior, or the underlying data distribution over time. To address data drift, Snapchat may employ the following strategies:

1. Monitoring and Tracking: Snapchat continuously monitors and tracks user interactions, feedback, and performance metrics of the recommendation system. This allows them to detect potential data drift or changes in user behavior. They may use statistical techniques, anomaly detection, or machine learning models to identify shifts in user preferences or patterns.

2. Data Collection and Feedback Loops: Snapchat actively collects feedback from users through explicit signals (ratings, likes, dislikes) and implicit signals (clicks, engagement, dwell time). This feedback provides valuable information about user preferences and helps in identifying changes in user behavior. By incorporating user feedback into the recommendation system, Snapchat can adapt to data drift and improve the relevance of recommendations.

3. Online Learning and Adaptive Models: Snapchat may employ online learning techniques to update the recommendation models in real-time as new data becomes available. Online learning allows the system to adapt to changes in user preferences and update the model parameters accordingly. Adaptive models can help in capturing the evolving user behavior and maintaining the effectiveness of the recommendation system.

4. A/B Testing and Experimentation: Snapchat can conduct A/B tests and experimentation to evaluate the performance of different recommendation strategies. By comparing the results of different algorithms or configurations, Snapchat can identify the approaches that are more resilient to data drift and provide better user satisfaction. A/B testing helps in validating the effectiveness of changes made to the recommendation system and identifying any performance degradation due to data drift.

5. Regular Model Updates: Snapchat may have a scheduled update process to retrain and update the recommendation models periodically. This allows them to incorporate new data, adapt to changes in user behavior, and mitigate the effects of data drift. Regular model updates ensure that the recommendation system remains up-to-date and responsive to evolving user preferences.

By combining these strategies, Snapchat can effectively handle data drift and maintain the accuracy and relevance of their recommendation system. Continuous monitoring, user feedback, online learning, and experimentation are key components of their approach to adapt to changing user preferences and provide personalized recommendations.

Snapchat’s ephemeral nature of stories, where content disappears after a short period, presents a unique challenge for online training of recommendation models. Since stories have a limited lifespan and are constantly changing, the training frequency may be different compared to platforms with persistent content.

The specific frequency of online training for Snapchat would depend on several factors, including the rate of user interactions, the volume of data generated, and the desired level of personalization. Here are some considerations:

1. Data Volume and Velocity: Snapchat generates a massive amount of user data, including interactions with stories, friend connections, and other engagement metrics. The velocity of data generated can be quite high due to the real-time nature of the platform. The training frequency would depend on the volume and velocity of data, ensuring that the models are updated with the most recent information.

2. User Engagement Patterns: Snapchat would analyze user engagement patterns to determine the optimal training frequency. If users frequently interact with stories and there is a significant change in content within a short time span, more frequent online training may be necessary to capture the latest user preferences. On the other hand, if user engagement is relatively stable, less frequent training might be sufficient.

3. Real-Time Relevance: Snapchat’s recommendation system aims to provide real-time relevance and deliver personalized content to users based on their immediate interests. To achieve this, online training may be performed at regular intervals or triggered by specific events, such as a significant change in user behavior or a large influx of new content.

4. Resource Constraints: Online training requires computational resources, including processing power and memory. Snapchat needs to balance the training frequency with resource limitations and scalability. Depending on their infrastructure, they may prioritize efficient online training approaches that can handle the scale of their data and training requirements.

Given the dynamic and time-sensitive nature of Snapchat’s stories, it’s likely that they would perform online training relatively frequently compared to platforms with more persistent content. The exact frequency would be determined through experimentation, monitoring user engagement, and assessing the impact of training updates on the relevance and performance of the recommendation system.

In Snapchat’s friend recommendation system, ranking refers to the process of ordering the recommended friends or content based on their relevance and potential interest to the user. The goal is to prioritize the most relevant recommendations and present them to the user in an ordered list or feed.

The ranking process in Snapchat would involve several steps, which may include:

1. Scoring and Relevance Calculation: Each candidate friend or content item would be assigned a relevance score based on various factors such as user preferences, user interactions, social connections, and contextual information. These scores are typically calculated using machine learning models or algorithms that take into account the user’s historical behavior and the characteristics of the candidates.

2. Personalization: Snapchat’s ranking would heavily focus on personalization, tailoring the recommendations to the individual user’s preferences, interests, and social connections. The ranking algorithm would consider the user’s interactions with the platform, their friend network, previous engagement with content, and any explicit feedback provided by the user (e.g., likes, saves, shares) to personalize the recommendations.

3. Multi-objective Optimization: Snapchat’s ranking algorithm may consider multiple objectives, such as maximizing user engagement, diversity in recommendations, and business goals. Balancing these objectives is crucial to provide a satisfying user experience while achieving the platform’s desired outcomes.

4. Real-Time Adaptation: As user preferences and trends change over time, Snapchat’s ranking system would continuously adapt and update the recommendations in real-time. This may involve monitoring user feedback, tracking performance metrics, and incorporating signals from ongoing user interactions to refine the ranking algorithm and improve the relevance of recommendations.

5. Experimentation and A/B Testing: Snapchat would likely employ A/B testing and experimentation to evaluate the effectiveness of different ranking strategies. By randomly assigning users to different ranking algorithms or configurations, Snapchat can compare user engagement and satisfaction metrics to identify the most effective approach.

The specific details of Snapchat’s ranking algorithm and the features considered in the scoring process are proprietary and not publicly disclosed. Snapchat’s recommendation system is likely a combination of various machine learning techniques, deep learning models, and heuristics designed to provide personalized and engaging recommendations to its users.

In Snapchat’s context, GNN embeddings can help address the cold start problem in both friends ranking and discovery by providing a way to capture user and item representations based on their graph structure and attributes. Here’s how GNN embeddings can assist in handling the cold start:

1. Friends Ranking: When a user joins Snapchat or has limited friend connections, GNN embeddings can be utilized to learn meaningful representations of users based on their attributes and social connections. The GNN model can capture the similarities and relationships between users in the friend graph, even if there is limited interaction data. By leveraging these embeddings, Snapchat can suggest potential friends or prioritize friend recommendations for new users, considering their shared attributes, mutual connections, or common interests.

2. Discovery: In the context of content discovery, GNN embeddings can be employed to represent items such as stories, posts, or other content in the Snapchat ecosystem. These embeddings capture the inherent characteristics and relationships between items based on the graph structure and associated attributes. For new or lesser-known items, GNN embeddings can provide a way to understand their relevance and similarity to other items in the graph. This allows Snapchat to recommend relevant and interesting content to users, even if there is limited historical interaction data for those specific items.

By incorporating GNN embeddings in the cold start scenarios of friends ranking and discovery, Snapchat can leverage the underlying graph structure and user-item relationships to make personalized recommendations. The GNN model learns embeddings that encode important features and relationships, helping mitigate the lack of historical data for new users or items. It enables Snapchat to provide relevant friend suggestions and engaging content recommendations to users, even in the absence of extensive interaction history.

The approach described above, which utilizes GNN embeddings to handle cold start in Snapchat’s friends ranking and discovery, can be considered a form of collaborative filtering. Collaborative filtering is a recommendation technique that relies on user-item interactions or feedback to make recommendations. It aims to identify similarities or patterns in user behavior to suggest items that are likely to be of interest to a given user.

In the case of GNN embeddings, the model leverages the graph structure and user-item relationships to learn representations that capture the underlying similarities and connections between users and items. By analyzing the interactions and attributes of users and items in the graph, the GNN model can generate embeddings that encode valuable information about their relationships. These embeddings can then be utilized to make personalized recommendations.

However, it’s worth noting that collaborative filtering typically refers to methods that directly leverage explicit or implicit feedback data, such as user ratings or item views, to infer user preferences. In the case of GNN embeddings, the focus is more on capturing the structural information of the graph and the attributes associated with users and items, rather than explicitly relying on user ratings or feedback. Nevertheless, the overall goal of providing personalized recommendations based on user-item relationships aligns with the broader objectives of collaborative filtering.

Yes, Snapchat can leverage Graph Neural Network (GNN) embeddings to handle the cold start problem in its recommendation system. GNNs have the capability to learn meaningful representations of users and items in a graph, even when there is limited or no interaction data available. By leveraging GNN embeddings, Snapchat can address the cold start problem by utilizing the following strategies:

1. User Embeddings: GNNs can be used to generate user embeddings that capture the latent characteristics and preferences of users. These embeddings can be learned by considering various information, such as user attributes, social connections, and past interactions. Even for new users with limited interaction history, GNNs can learn embeddings based on their attributes and similarities with other users.

2. Item Embeddings: Similarly, GNNs can generate embeddings for items, such as stories, content, or friend profiles. These embeddings capture the latent features of items and their relationships within the graph. By considering the attributes and connections of items, GNNs can learn embeddings that represent their characteristics and relevance.

3. Transfer Learning: Snapchat can leverage transfer learning techniques with GNNs. Pre-training the GNN models on a large-scale dataset with ample interaction data allows the model to capture general patterns and relationships. These pre-trained embeddings can then be fine-tuned on Snapchat’s specific data to address the cold start problem.

4. Hybrid Approaches: Snapchat can combine GNN embeddings with other recommendation techniques to handle cold start. For example, GNN embeddings can be used as a starting point to identify similar users or items, and then traditional collaborative filtering or content-based methods can be applied to refine the recommendations.

By utilizing GNN embeddings, Snapchat can capture the underlying structure and relationships within the user-item graph, enabling personalized recommendations even for users with limited interaction data. However, the exact details of Snapchat’s implementation, including the specific architecture, training procedures, and data sources, are proprietary and not publicly disclosed.

When a new member joins Snapchat, the GNN message passing process starts with their initial representation, which could be based on their profile information or any available data. The message passing algorithm operates on the social graph, which includes existing users and their connections, to propagate information and update the representations of all users, including the new member.

Initially, the new member’s representation is combined with the representations of their immediate neighbors (i.e., their friends or connections) in the graph. Through message passing iterations, the information from the new member’s neighbors is aggregated and transformed to update their representation. This process helps capture the influence and characteristics of the new member’s social connections.

As the message passing continues, the updated representation of the new member propagates to their neighbors and spreads through the graph. Each iteration allows for the incorporation of information from a broader network of users, enabling the new member’s representation to capture the collective influence and characteristics of their extended social connections.

The message passing process helps refine and update the representations of all users in the graph, including the new member. It leverages the connectivity and relationships in the social graph to capture the underlying structure and patterns in the network, enabling personalized recommendations and friend suggestions based on the updated user representations.

It’s important to note that the specifics of the message passing algorithm and the exact data used for representation may vary based on Snapchat’s specific implementation and any additional factors they consider.

If a new user on Snapchat has no connections or friends in their network, the process of providing friend recommendations and personalized discovery becomes more challenging. Since there are no existing connections to leverage, Snapchat would need to employ alternative strategies to offer relevant content and suggestions to the user. Here are a few possible approaches:

1. Content-Based Recommendations: Snapchat could initially rely on content-based recommendations, where they analyze the user’s preferences, interests, and interactions with the platform’s content. This could involve suggesting popular or trending content, curated content based on the user’s stated interests, or recommending content from popular creators or topics of interest.

2. Seed Recommendations: Snapchat could provide initial seed recommendations to the new user based on general trends or popular accounts on the platform. These recommendations might not be personalized initially but can serve as a starting point to engage the user and help them discover content and potentially make new connections.

3. Onboarding and Social Interactions: Snapchat can focus on encouraging the new user to connect with their existing contacts outside of the platform. This could involve suggesting the user to invite their friends from their phone contacts or other social media networks to join Snapchat. By increasing the user’s connections, Snapchat can enhance the friend recommendation and discovery experience for the user.

4. Community Engagement: Snapchat could provide opportunities for the new user to engage with broader communities or groups on the platform. This could involve suggesting popular communities, events, or shared interest groups where the user can participate and interact with like-minded individuals.

As the new user begins to establish connections and engage with the platform, Snapchat can leverage the interactions, user preferences, and the growing social graph to refine and personalize friend recommendations and discovery experiences over time. The absence of initial connections presents a unique challenge, but Snapchat can utilize various strategies to facilitate the user’s exploration of the platform and encourage social interactions.

Catch all links

“Machine Learning it JUST statistics!”. Sure! But before you go, can you answer the following questions?

• Why finding a set of weights for a Neural Network so that the network produces the correct output for all the training examples is a NP-hard problem? http://authors.library.caltech.edu/26705/1/88-20.pdf
• Why the Feature Selection problem is a NP-complete problem? https://www.aaai.org/…/Fall/1994/FS-94-02/FS94-02-011.pdf
• Why the Hyperparameter Optimization problem is NP-complete? https://www.cwu.edu/…/Hyperparameter%20Optimization…
• How would you implement Logistic Regression in a distributed manner? http://proceedings.mlr.press/v28/gopal13.pdf, https://link.springer.com/…/10.1007/978-981-15-1899-7_20
• What are the pros and cons of an Iterative Re-weighted Least Square implementation over a Gradient Descent implementation for a Logistic regression? https://nlp.chonbuk.ac.kr/BML/slides_freda/lec7.pdf
• How do you efficiently design a parallelized implementation of a Gradient Boosting Algorithm? https://www.kdd.org/kdd…/papers/files/rfp0697-chenAemb.pdf
• What are the trade-offs to build the trees in breadth-first-search (BFS) manner vs a depth-search-first (DFS) manner for a Random Forest algorithm? https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.06853
• How to modify the breadth-first-search algorithm to build efficient KD-trees for K-nearest neighbors? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-first_search https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download…
• Why the algorithms to parallelize on GPUs are slightly different from the ones to parallelize on CPUs? https://www.researchgate.net/…/4202315_Artificial…
• What is the effect of precision (e.g. float16 vs float32) in training Neural Networks? https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.02551, https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.7024, https://arxiv.org/abs/1602.02830
• How do you implement Logistic Regression on a quantum computing unit? https://arxiv.org/abs/1906.03834
• What is the best way to deploy a ML model on Kubernetes so you minimize latency while keeping modularity and maintainability high? https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/…/deploying-ml-models…/ https://opensource.com/…/9/deep-learning-model-kubernetes
• Why can Logistic Regression can perfectly learn the outcomes of a AND and OR logical gate but not from a XOR logical gate? https://web.stanford.edu/…/23-LogisticRegression.pdf https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/…/Slides/Lecture20.pdf
• What are the pros and cons of using Dynamic programming VS Monte Carlo methods to optimize the Bell equations? https://www.cs.hhu.de/…/Dialog…/Lectures_RL/L2.pdf https://richard-warren.github.io/blog/rl_intro_1/
• Why the Temporal-difference Learning method leads to more stable convergence of the Reinforcement learning algorithms? https://web.stanford.edu/…/pdphandbook/handbookch10.html Now that you answered those questions (or tried to!), can we take a minute now to appreciate the absurdity of the initial claim in this post? Thank you! —- Subscribe to my Newsletter to learn something new every week: https://TheAiEdge.io/ #machinelearning #datascience #statistics

ChatGPT vs GPT3

• What is it about ChatGPT we get so impressed by? GPT-3’s output is no less impressive but why does ChatGPT’s outputs feel “better”?
• The main difference between ChatGPT and GPT-3 is the tasks they are trying to solve.
• GPT-3 is mostly trying to predict the next token based on the previous tokens, including the ones from the user’s prompt, where ChatGPT tries to “follow the user’s instruction helpfully and safely”.

• ChatGPT is trying to align to the user’s intention (https://lnkd.in/g_PA_8Xc). That is the reason InstructGPT (ChatGPT’s sibling model) with 1.3B parameters gives responses that “feel” better than GPT-33 with 175B parameters.

• ChatGPT is simply a GPT-3 model fine-tuned to human generated data with a reward mechanism to penalize responses that feel wrong to human labelers.
• They are a few advantages that emerged from that alignment training process:
  • ChatGPT provides answers that are preferred over the ones generated by GPT-3
  • ChatGPT generates right and informative answers twice as often as GPT-3
  • ChatGPT leads to a language generation that is less toxic than GPT-3. However ChatGPT is still as biased!
  • ChatGPT adapts better to different learning tasks, generalize better to unseen data, or to instructions very different from the ones found in the training data. For example, ChatGPT can answer in different languages or efficiently code, even then most of the training data is using natural English language.

• For decades, language models were trained trying to predict sequence of words, where the key seemed to be in training to align to user’s intent. It seems conceptually obvious, but it is the first time that an alignment process is successfully applied to a language model of this scale.

• All the results presented in this post come from the InstructGPT article (https://lnkd.in/gnt9K9pu), and it is a safe assumption that those results carry to ChatGPT as well.

Generating music with text or images

• Imagine if you could tell a ML model “play a funk bassline with a jazzy saxophone” and it would synthesize artificial music! Well actually, you don’t need to imagine, you can just use it!

• Introducing RIFFUSION, a Stable Diffusion model trained on Spectrogram image data: https://lnkd.in/ge9_VE6t. The idea is simplistic:

• just pick a pre-trained Stable Diffusion model (https://lnkd.in/dpFheWYS)
• Take lot of musics with their text descriptions and convert that into Spectrogram image data
• Fine-tune to the Stable Diffusion model

=> you now have a model that can predict new spectrograms based on other spectrograms or text prompts. Just convert those spectrograms back to musics.

If you want more details on how to do it yourself you can follow the process here: https://lnkd.in/gpj_K-UF. I discovered this website yesterday through Alpha Signal’s weekly summary: https://alphasignal.ai/. If you to learn more about stable diffusion, you can read my LinkedIn post on it: https://lnkd.in/gxBiU9fB

Stable Diffusion

• What is STABLE DIFFUSION? It is similar to DALL-E 2 as it is a diffusion model that can be used to generate images from text prompt.
• As opposed to DALL-E 2 though, it is open source with a PyTorch implementation (https://lnkd.in/dPpjtr-d) and a pre-trained version on HuggingFace (https://lnkd.in/dpFheWYS).

• It is trained using the LAION-5B dataset (https://lnkd.in/gewm6VEV). Stable diffusion in composed of the following sub-models:

• We have an autoencoder (https://lnkd.in/dyzQgDXH) trained by combination of a perceptual loss (https://lnkd.in/dPqz68Tp) and a patch-based adversarial objective (https://lnkd.in/dJMX3ugX).

• With it, we can encode an image to a latent representation and decode it from it.

• A random noise is progressively applied to the embedding (https://lnkd.in/dq2ZUKmj). A latent representation of a text prompt is learned from a CLIP alignment to the image representation (https://lnkd.in/eGNMirji).

• We then use U-Net, a convolutional network with ResNet blocks to learn to denoise the diffused embedding (https://lnkd.in/dBppaqVK).
• The textual information is injected through cross-attention layers through the network (https://lnkd.in/dWsrEkpD).

• The resulting denoised image is then decoded by the autoencoder decoder.

• The process is described here: https://lnkd.in/d4NijqmG and one of the best explanation on Stable Diffusion here: https://lnkd.in/dpWMm_kS. Fun model!

How to generate animation with Stable Diffusion

But how do we generate those cool animations with STABLE DIFFUSION? Check out the one I did in Replicate: https://replicate.com/p/uzj2czjjzradtjcrzet6yfqdkq. Those animations are mostly due to the fact that it is easy to interpolate between 2 images or 2 text prompts in the latent space (embedding representations). The DALL-E 2 article explains that pretty well: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2204.06125.pdf. You need a start and end prompt. I chose “A picture of a bear” and “A picture of an apple”. You then encode those texts in the latent space using the text encoder of the CLIP model (https://openai.com/blog/clip/), and you use the interpolation between the 2 text prompts to guide the denoising process of a random image for a few steps. This is just to anchor the denoising process in between the 2 prompts such that the animation is less jumpy. You then create as many intermediary interpolations between the 2 prompts as you need frames in your animation, and continue the denoising process until getting clean images. If you need smoother animations, you simply interpolate between the generated images in the latent space. I have had a lot of fun playing with Andreas Jansson’s implementation of animations with Stable Diffusion: https://replicate.com/andreasjansson/stable-diffusion-animation. He is using the pretrained model on Hugging Face (https://huggingface.co/…/huggingface…/diffuse-the-rest). You can learn more about it my Newsletter: https://newsletter.TheAiEdge.io/ —- Follow me for more Machine Learning content!

🚀 Stable diffusion stands out among diffusion models, Here is Why.

Stable Diffusion (SD) offers Knobs to trade-off Speed, Sample quality and Guidance for high fidelity.

Here are the ideas that made those properties possible:

→ Latent diffusion: Originally Diffusion models operated on Pixel space, hence computationally exorbitant, Latent diffusion projects images to a Latent space.

This means a immaculate tradeoff between sample quality and speed. Hence SD lends itself to high quality 512x512 samples in acceptable speeds. Canva introduced text to image using SD, recently.

→ Non-Markovian noise scheduling: Diffusion models noise and de-noise images along number of time steps . Akin to sequence modelling like in RNNs.

But RNNs are better than Markov models for sequence modelling because they defy markov porperty and can learn long range relationships.

Honouring the same tradition SD uses DDIM (and cousins), a set of Non-markovian noising schedulers to accelerates sampling as opposed to slower markovian DDPM.

SD exposes num_inference_steps for this, more the steps, better the image quality.

→ (Noise Conditional) Score-Based Modelling:

Typically likelihood models like VAE, Flow based, EBMs and implicitly generative models like GANs have multiple challenges.

Latter is unstable (owing to mode collapse) which inspite of adversarial training trades off diversity for quality.

Former tries to model the probability density (or mass) function of the distribution of the data which quickly becomes intractable mathematically. Hence score based models offers a perfect side stepping, to model a tractable score function using schedules of noise and measures performance by score matching techniques like Fischer’s divergence.

→ Classifier free guidance: Originally diffusion was aimed at unconditional generation. To condition the generation with text, guided diffusion was introduced, it was done using an ancillary classifier model that trades-off diversity of samples for fidelity aka faithfulness to the prompt.

Idea is to use the gradient of the classifier model trained on noisy images to guide demonising during inferences.

But thanks to Jonathan Ho, he introduced classifier free guidance (CFG), SD uses this technique and exposes a single scalar parameter called “guidance scale”. CFG removes the need for one extra model. DALL-E(CLIP), GLIDE and ImageGen (T5) all use a classier based guidance.

On the downside, CFG is one of the potential reasons why you need to write elaborate prompts for SD and but that’s not the case with DALL-E.

ML Youtube channels

Sometime we just need to sit back and relax watching videos! Here are great YouTube channels to learn Machine Learning from. Enjoy:

• What’s AI by Louis Bouchard: https://lnkd.in/euVngxvQ
• Abhishek Thakur (Practical videos, Talks) : https://lnkd.in/eTPrcvEN
• Ahlad Kumar (Deep learning, Theoretical): https://lnkd.in/eVGxpXfw
• Aladdin Persson (PyTorch, TensorFlow): https://lnkd.in/e29966pV
• Andreas Mueller: https://lnkd.in/eQYM3WyC
• Data School (Python, Machine learning, Theoretical): https://lnkd.in/eXEjf27Q
• Connor Shorten (Theoretical): https://lnkd.in/ejdwwyzq
• Jeremy Howard (Deep learning, Theoretical): https://lnkd.in/ec3DGa7g
• Rasa (Rasa, AI, NLP): https://lnkd.in/ehUe-qPE
• Yannic Kilcher (NLP, Machine learning, Deep learning, Theoretical): https://lnkd.in/ebRk-bMB
• OpenAI (NLP, Machine learning, AI): https://lnkd.in/eWvCKiqz
• Two Minute Papers (Machine Learning and AI Research, Scientific Papers): https://lnkd.in/eQY_5_SV
• Machine Learnia (Machine Learning, Scikit Learn, Python): https://lnkd.in/enFTrVh9
• Mark Saroufim (Machine Learning Engineering, Practical videos, Books review): https://lnkd.in/ez32nFS5
• sentdex (Python for AI and Finance): https://lnkd.in/eMsdgVbS

I found that curated list of YouTubers on this awesome repo: https://lnkd.in/eVgmFN8Y. That repo has similar lists for many other software skills, so make sure to check it out.

DALLE-2

• How does DALL-E 2 work? DALL-E 2 generates non-deterministic images from text data.

• It is basically a combination of 2 models: a CLIP model that predicts image from text and a diffusion model that predicts non-deterministically images from image embeddings.

• First, they train a Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training (CLIP) model that predicts images with text inputs: https://lnkd.in/eGNMirji, https://lnkd.in/eHbmBb2t.
• By training that model, they obtain a CLIP text embedding T and an image embedding E.
• The second model is a Diffusion model that takes an image embedding E and predicts non-deterministic images: https://lnkd.in/erwcgzzz, https://lnkd.in/eC3FRMMq

-> Piping those 2 models together, a text caption can be used to predict an image embedding E that in turn can be used to predict non deterministic images.

• Learning those embeddings lead to interesting properties.
• For example, we can take 2 images and their resulting embeddings E1 and E2 and continuously interpolate between the 2 embeddings in the latent space.
• This results in having the capability to create new images that seem to have their styled mixed together with a lot of control.
• We can also do a very similar thing with the text embedding by having 2 text captions and their resulting embeddings T1 and T2.

• By interpolating between those 2 again in the latent space, we can continuously create images that capture the intermediate meaning of the 2 captions.

• The results are honestly baffling! I think with models like GAN and now Dall-E, we have entered an era of Machine Learning where engineers are able to put together specialized models together in a creative way to achieve what doesn’t look like what we used to call “Machine Learning” anymore.
• You can find the Dall-E 2 article here: https://lnkd.in/evk2QQWd, https://lnkd.in/e6HDhscP, and you can compare it to Dall-E 1: https://lnkd.in/etpBqDjK. If you want to play with it, you can try the OpenAI API: https://lnkd.in/ePSKNNWN

Forward-Forward Algorithm

• We may not need the BACK PROPAGATION algorithm anymore! Hinton is presenting results on the Forward-Forward algorithm: https://lnkd.in/gkU_tqNz.
• The first forward pass in done with real data and the second forward data is done with “negative data” and the weights are learned by computing a local gradient. It seems to have 2 advantages: first, it to work well enough on a few problems for now, and second, there seems to be possible to separate the 2 forward learning phases.

• Imagine if you could train the forward passes and the backward passes at different points in time. I will need time to build a good intuition on that one!

• At each layer, the local “target” P is the sum of the square of the activation functions squeezed in the probability space by a logistic function and a threshold.
• The real data should lead to P ~ 1 (activations above the threshold) and the negative data should lead to P ~ 0 (activations below the threshold).

• The gradient can be computed locally and the weights can be updated using that “local classification” process.

• For image classification for example, the real data could be a pair of image X and a target y (X, y), where the negative data can be an image X paired with a random target y’ (X, y’).

You can find a PyTorch implementation of the Forward-Forward algorithm in this repo: https://lnkd.in/g58uv7TK. I am looking forward to see more experimental results on that one. I have a feeling that this is going to change Deep Learning as we know it!

ChatGPT

• Do you know how ChatGPT was trained? ChatGPT is “simply” a fined-tuned GPT-3 model with a surprisingly small amount of data!

• Moreover, ChatGPT is using 1.3B parameters where GPT-3 uses 175B parameters! It is first fine-tuned with supervised learning and then further fine-tuned with reinforcement learning. They hired 40 human labelers to generate the training data. Let’s dig into it!

• First, they started by a pre-trained GPT-3 model trained on a broad distribution of Internet data (https://lnkd.in/gAUtxvrM).
• Then sampled typical human prompts used for GPT collected from the OpenAI website and asked labelers and customers to write down the correct output.

• They fine-tuned the model with 12,725 labeled data.

• Then, they sampled human prompts and generated multiple outputs from the model for each of the prompt. A labeler is then asked to rank those outputs.

• The resulting data is used to train a Reward model (https://lnkd.in/gdrzdWu3) with 33,207 prompts and ~10 times more training samples using different combination of the ranked outputs.

• We then sample more human prompts and they are used to fine-tuned the supervised fine-tuned model with Proximal Policy Optimization algorithm (PPO), a Reinforcement Learning algorithm (https://lnkd.in/gsDTWtga).
• The prompt is fed to the PPO model, the Reward model generates a reward value, and the PPO model is iteratively fine-tuned using the rewards and the prompts using 31,144 prompts data.

This process is fully described in here: https://lnkd.in/gnt9K9pu. The paper actually details a model called InstructGPT which is described by OpenAI as a “sibling model” to ChatGPT, so the numbers shown above may be slightly different from the exact ones used for ChatGPT.

What is it about ChatGPT we get so impressed by? GPT-3’s output is no less impressive but why does ChatGPT’s outputs feel “better”? The main difference between ChatGPT and GPT-3 is the tasks they are trying to solve. GPT-3 is mostly trying to predict the next token based on the previous tokens, including the ones from the user’s prompt, where ChatGPT tries to “follow the user’s instruction helpfully and safely”. ChatGPT is trying to align to the user’s intention (alignment research). That is the reason InstructGPT (ChatGPT’s sibling model) with 1.3B parameters give responses that “feel” better than GPT-3 with 175B parameters.

The Training

ChatGPT vs GPT-3

The Training ChatGPT is “simply” a fined-tuned GPT-3 model with a surprisingly small amount of data! It is first fine-tuned with supervised learning and then further fine-tuned with reinforcement learning. In the case of InstructGPT, they hired 40 human labelers to generate the training data. Let’s dig into it (the following numbers were the ones used for InstructGPT)!

First, they started by a pre-trained GPT-3 model trained on a broad distribution of Internet data (GPT-3 article). Then sampled typical human prompts used for GPT-3 collected from the OpenAI website and asked labelers and customers to write down the correct outputs. They fine-tuned the model in a supervised learning manner using 12,725 labeled data point.

Then, they sampled human prompts and generated multiple outputs from the model. A labeler is then asked to rank those outputs. The resulting data is used to train a Reward model (https://arxiv.org/pdf/2009.01325.pdf) with 33,207 prompts and ~10 times more training samples using different combinations of the ranked outputs.

They then sampled more human prompts and they were used to fine-tuned the supervised fine-tuned model with Proximal Policy Optimization algorithm (PPO) (https://arxiv.org/pdf/1707.06347.pdf), a Reinforcement Learning algorithm. The prompt is fed to the PPO model, the Reward model generates a reward value, and the PPO model is iteratively fine-tuned using the rewards and the prompts using 31,144 prompts data.

ML for Ads Ranking RecSys

At Meta, we were using many different paradigms of Recommendation Engines for ADS RANKING. Conceptually, a recommender system is simple: you take a set of features for a user U and a set of features for an item I along with features C capturing the context at the time of the recommendation (time of the day, weekend / week day, …), and you match those features to an affinity event (e.g. did the user click on the ad or not): click or not = F(U, I, C).

-In the early days they started with Gradient Boosting models. Those models are good with dense features (e.g. age, gender, number of clicks in the last month, …) but very bad with sparse features (page Id, user Id, Ad Id, …). By the way, we often talk of the superiority of Tree based models for tabular data, well this is a real exception to the rule! Those sparse features are categorical features with literally billions of categories and very few sample events. For example, consider the time series of sequence of pages visited by a user, how do you build features to capture that information? That is why they moved to Deep Learning little by little where a page Id becomes a vector in an embedding and a sequence of page Ids can be encoded by transformers as a simple vector. And even with little information on that page, the embedding can provide a good guess by using similar user interactions to other pages.

-Typical models we were using were Multi-task learning (https://lnkd.in/gVZ7HrUz), Mixture of experts (https://lnkd.in/dE6XZvJx) or Multi-towers models (https://lnkd.in/gPZ-GfRS). In Ads Ranking, the ranking happens in stages: first you select a sub-universe of ads (let’s say 1M ads) that relate to the user (very fast retrieval), then you select a subset of those ads (let’s say 1000 Ads) with a simple model (fast inference) and then you use a very complex model (slow inference) to rank the resulting ads as accurately as possible. The top ranked ad will be the one you see on your screen. We also used MIMO (multi-inputs multi-outputs) models to simultaneously train the simple and complex models for efficient 2 stages ranking.

-I cannot think of a model type that capture better the success of ML in our societies. Google search, Google or Facebook Ads, Youtube suggestions, Netflix movie suggestions, Amazon products search, … are all the results of decades of research in recommender systems and are all top drivers of the cash flows for those companies.

Is PageRank still used at Google

Is PageRank still used as part of Google Search? Yes we know it is as we can see in the list of systems that are currently in use: https://developers.google.com/…/ranking-systems-guide. PageRank is a metric of importance of a website as measured by how connected that website is to others (https://snap.stanford.edu/…/cs224w…/Brin98Anatomy.pdf). It used to be the main way websites were ranked in Google Search, leading to its success at the time, but now searches are personalized where PageRank is a global metric. We don’t know how it is used, but we can pretty much guess!

• A Google search happens in stages. First, the search query is expanded and used to perform an initial Document Selection. This document selection is driven by keywords matching in a database. If I type today “google search”, Google tells me there are about 25B results related to my search.

• Then results go through a set of Recommender engines. There is most likely a simple Rec Engine first ranking a large amount of documents (maybe 100,000 or 10,000 documents) and a complex one refining the ranking of the top ranked documents (maybe 100 or 1000). Who cares about the quality of the ranking for the documents far in the list of documents! The websites are probably already ranked by PageRank in the initial document selection as it can be computed at indexing time. There is no need to send all 25B documents to the first Rec engine, and PageRank is most likely used as a cutoff to send a small subset.

• However it is unlikely that PageRank is the only cutoff parameter as some websites would never get discovered. I would expect some simple geolocalization and context matching metrics as well as randomization to be used as well.

• At this point the ranking becomes personalized, and user data becomes the main factor, but PageRank is likely to still be used as a feature for all the successive Rec Engines used in the search pipeline.

Obviously those are educated guesses as those information are not public. You can learn more about it my Newsletter: https://newsletter.TheAiEdge.io/

CLIP

How would you know if an image is “similar” to its text caption? Conceptually, you could “simply’’ measure the cosine similarity between the image and the text. That is the idea behind CLIP (Contrastive Language-Image Pretraining: https://openai.com/blog/clip/), the OpenAI algorithm underlying Dall-E 2 (https://arxiv.org/pdf/2204.06125.pdf) and Stable Diffusion (https://arxiv.org/pdf/2112.10752.pdf). An intermediate latent vector representation of the image and the text is learned such that a high value of the dot product is indicative of high similarity. First, they created a dataset of 400M pairs (image, text) from publicly available datasets on the internet. Then they used a 63M parameters Transformer model (A small GPT-2 like model: https://cdn.openai.com/…/language_models_are…) to extract the text features T and a Vision transformer (https://arxiv.org/pdf/2010.11929.pdf) to extract the image features I. The resulting vectors are further transformed such that the text and image vectors have the same size. With N (image, text) pairs, we can generate N^2 - N pairs where the image does not correspond to the text caption. They then take the normalized dot product (cosine similarity) between T and I. If the text corresponds to the image, the model receives a label 1 and 0 otherwise, such that the model learns that corresponding image and text should generate a dot product close to 1. This model has a lot of applications in zero-shot learning! In typical image classification, we feed the model with an image, and the model provides a guess from a set of predefined text labels used during the supervised training. But with CLIP, we can provide the set of text labels we want the model to classify the image into without having to retrain the model because the model will try to gauge the similarity between those labels and the image. We can virtually build an infinite amount of Image classifiers by just switching the text labels! The article ( https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.00020.pdf) showcases the robustness of CLIP to generalize to different learning tasks without the need to retrain the model. In my opinion, this adaptability of ML models shows how much closer we are from true Artificial Intelligence! CLIP is an open-source project (https://github.com/openai/CLIP), so make sure to try it.

Quick Feature Selection Method

This is a technique I like to perform a quick FEATURE SELECTION for Machine Learning applications. I tend to call it the “Random Bar” method! Let’s assume you have a feature set X and a target Y. Let’s create a random vector V (for example np.random.normal(size=(1, 100))) and append that vector as a new feature to X: X’ = [X, V] X’ is just the original feature set with additionally the new random feature. Keep in mind that this new feature cannot possibly help to predict the target Y since it is random! Now, take that data (X’, Y) and train a Supervised Learning algorithm with a Feature Importance measure that is relevant for you application. Intuitively, the mean entropy gain per split of tree based algorithms (Random Forest, Xgboost, …) is a convincing measure of feature importance to me. The statistical fluctuation of the data is such that even the random feature will be attributed a non-zero feature importance by the algorithm, but we know it is artificial. Any feature with a lower feature importance than the random feature has to be useless to predict the target and the features with a higher feature importance are at least better than random noise at predicting the target. This is especially useful if you have thousands of features and you want to weed out quickly the ones that won’t have any impact in the learning process. This is also a method that can be used for highly non-linear data as opposed to LASSO (for example) that tends to only understand linear relationships in the data. The random feature is a “Random Bar” because this is the minimum bar a feature needs to beat to be a part of the potentially useful features set. Now it doesn’t mean there are not additional features that could be beneficial to further remove to optimize your model. Do you know if this method has a more jargon-y name? What is your favorite feature selection method?

Overfitting

After sharing various methods that reduce overfitting yesterday, I found some intriguing new research studying the effect of pruning on the generalization performance.

It’s been known that pruning (producing smaller models) can improve generalization performance. At the same time, we also know that larger, overparameterized models can improve generalization performance (e.g., see double decent and grokking).

So, how can we reconcile the observation that pruned models can exhibit better generalization performance with contradictory observations from double decent and grokking studies? Researchers recently showed that the reduction of overfitting due to pruning could be partly explained by the improved training process[. Pruning involves more extended training periods and a replay of learning rate schedules that are partly responsible for improved generalization performance.

On noisy datasets, however, the generalization performance improvements due to pruning can be explained by a larger loss on noisy training examples. Why is a larger loss on noisy training examples better? Presumably because the pruned models don’t try to fit these noisy examples, which adds a regularizing effect – this is somewhat similar to reducing the width of the layers.

• Suppose your deep neural network suffers from overfitting. In that case, there is a large pool of techniques and approaches to choose from (I separated the most common ones into dataset and model perspectives two days ago).

Now, the follow-up question is, which of the techniques gives you the most gain? Weight decay (with AdamW) is definitely one you should consider in your regularization cocktail.

In the figure below, I summarized 4 references that discuss different aspects of weight decay and its effects on overfitting.

Pruning

After sharing various methods that reduce overfitting yesterday, I found some intriguing new research studying the effect of pruning on the generalization performance.

It’s been known that pruning (producing smaller models) can improve generalization performance. At the same time, we also know that larger, overparameterized models can improve generalization performance (e.g., see double decent and grokking).

So, how can we reconcile the observation that pruned models can exhibit better generalization performance with contradictory observations from double decent and grokking studies? Researchers recently showed that the reduction of overfitting due to pruning could be partly explained by the improved training process[. Pruning involves more extended training periods and a replay of learning rate schedules that are partly responsible for improved generalization performance.

On noisy datasets, however, the generalization performance improvements due to pruning can be explained by a larger loss on noisy training examples. Why is a larger loss on noisy training examples better? Presumably because the pruned models don’t try to fit these noisy examples, which adds a regularizing effect – this is somewhat similar to reducing the width of the layers.

Information Retrieval Metrics

I may be wrong, but I think it is quite unlikely that Google ML ENGINEERS are using typical information retrieval metrics to assess the offline performance of the ML classifiers used within Google Search or similar search engine! There are ~3.5 billion searches per day, with each search generating a lot of positive and negative samples. If you train a classifier on that data, you probably want to spam at least a few days of data if not more. It is an extremely class imbalanced problem, so you’ll probably want to downsample the majority class for the computation to be manageable. That is still tens of billions of samples for each model development at least!

A metric like Normalized Discounted Cumulative Gain (NDCG) requires the concept of relevance (gain) to part of the data. That can be achieved with manual labeling but that is NOT going to be manageable on billions of samples. Metrics like Mean Reciprocal Rank (MRR) or Mean Average Precision (MAP) requires to know the true rank of the sample, meaning if I assess a classifier on a validation data, the predicted rank per search session is not going to be meaningful if we downsampled the data, and the metrics will be extremely dependent on the specific sampling scheme. We could imagine that we downsample the number of sessions instead of the majority class, but this forces us to only keep the top samples shown by the algorithms. That seems unwise since this will prevent ML engineers from experimenting with new sampling methods in future developments and the models will never see very negative samples, which is a bit problematic if we want to build an accurate model. The same problem occurs with a metric like Hit rate, since you need a window size.

If you order the search results by the probability of click provided by the classifier, the log-loss (or cross entropy) is a completely acceptable ranking metric. It is a point-wise metric, which means it doesn’t require us to know the predicted rank of the sample to compute a meaningful value. The probability itself will be biased by the false class distribution coming from the downsampling, but this can be corrected by recalibrating the probability p ​​using the simple formula: p’ = p / (p + (1-p) * s), where s is the negative sampling rate (https://eva.fing.edu.uy/…/Elkan_2001_The_foundations_of…).

With a probability metric such as the log-loss, I expect more freedom for the ML engineers to experiment with new techniques. For example, in the case of search engines, we could label with 1 the clicked links and 0 the non-clicked links, but you could also imagine that the negative samples are only sampled from unsuccessful sessions (where the users did not find the right link). In a successful session, the non-clicked links are not really “bad”, they are just less interesting to the user. To be able to assess across models and teams, it might be useful to use the normalized entropy metric (https://deychak.github.io/normalized-cross-entropy) as anything above 1 is worse than random.

XGBoost

“XGBoost is ALL you need!” Well, it is true until it is not. Algorithms like Linear Regression have their number of degrees of freedom (d.o.f. - complexity) scaling with the number of features O(M). In practice, this means that their ability to learn from the data will plateau in the regime N » M where N is the number of samples (typically large data sets). They have a high bias but a low variance and as such they are well adapted to the N > M regime. In the N < M regime, L1 regularization becomes necessary to learn the relevant features and zero-out the noise (think about having more unknowns than equations to solve a set of linear equations). Naive Bayes d.o.f. scales as O(C x M) (or O(M)depending on the implementation) where C is the number categories the features are discretized into. O(C) = O(N) in theory but not really in practice. This makes it a lower bias algorithm than LR but it is a product ensemble of univariate models and ignores the feature interactions (as LR does) preventing it from further improvements.
A tree in its unregularized form, is a low bias (you can overfit the data to death), with d.o.f scaling as O(N), but high variance (deep trees don’t generalize well). But because a tree can reduce its complexity as much as needed, it can work in the regime N < M by simply selecting the necessary features. A Random Forest is therefore a low bias algorithm but the ensemble averages away the variance (but deeper trees call for more trees) and it doesn’t overfit on the number of trees (Theorem 1.2 https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~breiman/randomforest2001.pdf), so it is a lower variance algorithm. The homogenous learning (the trees tend to be similar) tends to limit its ability to learn on too much data. XGBoost is the first (to my knowledge) tree algorithm to mathematically formalize regularization in a tree (eq. 2 https://arxiv.org/pdf/1603.02754.pdf). It is a low bias and high variance (due to the boosting mechanism) and is therefore adapted to large data scales. The GBM Boosting mechanism ensures a more heterogenous learning than RF and therefore adapts better to larger scales. The optimal regularization ensures higher quality trees as weak learners than in RF and tends to be more robust to overfitting than RF. In the regime N » M, only low bias algorithms make sense with d.o.f. scaling as O(N). That includes algorithms like GBM, RF, Neural Networks, SVM (gaussian), KNN,… SVM has a training time complexity of O(N^3) (unmanageable!) and KNN is bad at understanding what is an important feature and has dimensionality errors scaling as O(M). Neural Networks are known to underperform compared to XGBoost on tabular data. So, if you are working on large data, XGBoost MAY be all you need! But make sure to prove it to yourself. The no Free-Lunch Theorem doesn’t mean we cannot understand our algorithms and build an intuition on what are the best use cases to use them! — Follow me for more Machine Learning content! #machinelearning #datascience #XGBoost

A question often arises when teaching is how XGBoost and LightGBM differ. The short fun-fact summary is that the tree-building algorithms are a tad different.

XGBoost’s trees are based on breadth-first search, comparing different features at each node.

LightGBM performs depth-first search, focusing on a single feature at a time and growing the tree from there.

1) BFS : Is memory intensive, take more time to execute. Likely to underfit if stop early. To control this I guess some package has ability to convert that to Uniform Cost search I believe it will work well where dataset contains more categorical independent variable

2) DFS: Require less memory as compared to BFS. Likely to overfit and stuck in local minima situation. To control this I guess some package has ability to convert that to Depth Limit Search. I believe DFS will work well in number input features.

Data Parallelization by Sebastian Raschka

When I started grad school, training deep neural networks on a GPU was something special – it was both tricky to do and awesome when it worked).

The world has moved on since then! Nowadays, training a model on a single GPU would be considered a major bottleneck.

Here is a quick overview of the 4 different paradigms for multi-GPU training.

1) Data parallelism 2) Model parallelism 3) Pipeline parallelism 4) Tensor parallelism

Top 5 basic checks when trianing deep learning models

What are some of the basic things you should watch out for when training deep neural networks? Here are my top 5:

1) Make sure training loss converged 2) Check for overfitting 3) Compare accuracy to a zero-rule baseline 4) Look at failure cases 5) Plot at a confusion matrix

Bonus! some additional suggestions from the community:

6) Make sure your model is able to overfit to a small dataset (like 1000 examples) or a single minibatch. (Tip 3 from Andrej Karpathy’s “A Recipe for Training Neural Networks” https://lnkd.in/gvfgqxTQ)

7) Check whether layers have converged to a good alpha (e.g., using weightwatcher). See https://lnkd.in/gHDHDXAu

8) Check how confident your model is on out-of-distribution data (a common problem for neural nets); one out of many papers on this topic: https://lnkd.in/gsjSVYcd

9) Apply your model to new data from the application domain (e.g., if you train a handwritten digit classifier, try your own handwritten digits)

A list of 5 techniques to optimize deep neural network model performance during inference

Links for MLOPS

Ok, let’s learn about MLOps!

Courses:

• Made With ML: https://madewithml.com/
• Coursera - DeepLearning.AI MLOps specialization: https://lnkd.in/gVrxJqQS
• Coursera - Google MLE certificate: https://lnkd.in/gVNNpzzR
• MLOps Zoomcamp: https://lnkd.in/gt2QH7sz
• Berkeley Full Stack Deep Learning: https://lnkd.in/gG8jR2Vg
• Udemy - Deployment of Machine Learning Models: https://lnkd.in/g7TpQ_dM
• Udemy - MLOps Fundamentals CI/CD/CT: https://lnkd.in/gkW9Gkrj
• Udemy - Testing and Monitoring Machine Learning Model Deployments: https://lnkd.in/g4qAw9Hq
• MLOps Certification Training: https://lnkd.in/guRq627D
• MLOps Engineering on AWS: https://lnkd.in/g-tnpKuY
• AWS Machine Learning University: https://lnkd.in/g-jjMk3Q
• EdX - MLOps with AWS: https://lnkd.in/gYE37jDN
• MLOps Course Certification: https://lnkd.in/gDGUXPR7
• GCP MLOps Fundamentals: https://lnkd.in/geNjGNyP
• Stanford MLSys Seminar Series: https://lnkd.in/gdNWPceY
• DataRobot MLOps Starter: https://lnkd.in/gMQYSitX
• Udacity - Become a Machine Learning Engineer for Microsoft Azure: https://lnkd.in/garedV7K
• LinkedIn - Applied Machine Learning Foundations: https://lnkd.in/ghWPcHHq
• Unifying MLOps at Microsoft: https://lnkd.in/gsKyb3Dq

Books:

• Machine Learning Engineering: https://lnkd.in/gjyw35fh
• Introducing MLOps: https://lnkd.in/gZzh_cYz
• What Is MLOps?: https://lnkd.in/g_vgYKMh
• Practical MLOps: https://lnkd.in/gbGnj7ss
• Reliable Machine Learning: https://lnkd.in/gCvje923
• Designing Machine Learning Systems: https://lnkd.in/gRmEkHwj

Repos:

• Awesome MLOps: https://lnkd.in/gqCWbuQT
• Awesome Production Machine Learning: https://lnkd.in/g8zfBRSB

I offer Machine Learning consulting services: https://lnkd.in/gqzuB6kM I offer Data Science career mentoring: https://lnkd.in/gGBMXuR4
10% off coupon on DataInterview.com: damien10off

Architecture

Deep Learning requires much more of an ARCHITECT mind set than traditional Machine Learning. In a sense, the feature engineering work has been moved to the design of very specialized computational blocks in DL using smaller units (LSTM, Convolutional, embedding, Fully connected, …). I always advise to start with a simple net when architecting a model such that you can build your intuition. Jumping right away into a Transformer model may not be the best way to start.

DL is very powerful in the case of multi-modal input data: time series, tabular data, text data, image data. One approach is to encode all those different data types into a simple vector and feed that into a logistic regression (LogReg) or a linear regression (LR) (or with more fully connected layers to add non-linearity) depending on if you need to perform classification or regression. When developing a simple model, start with a low capacity network and increase little by little the complexity to reduce the bias while adding regularization to keep the variance low.

A conv layer is meant to learn local correlations. Multiple successive blocks of conv and pooling layers allows to learn the correlations at multiple scales and they can be used on image data (conv2d), text data (text is just a time series of categorical variables) or time series (conv1d). For example you can encode an image using a series of conv2d and pooling layers like in VGG (https://lnkd.in/g6Jp6NmD, https://lnkd.in/gDjUGWFE). You can encode text data using an embedding (pretrained obviously https://lnkd.in/gt5N-i6R) followed by a couple of conv1d layers. And you can encode a time series using series of conv1d and pooling layers.

I advise against using LSTM layers when possible. The iterative computation doesn’t allow for good parallelism leading to very slow training (even with the Cuda LSTM). For text and time series ConvNet are much faster to train as they make use the of the matrix computation parallelism and tend to perform on par with LSTM networks (https://lnkd.in/g-6Z6qCN). One reason transformers became the leading block unit for text learning tasks, is its superior parallelism capability compared to LSTM allowing for realistically much bigger training data sets.

In general it is not too hard to train on multi-modal data. As a simple example:

• time series vector = Pool1d(Conv1d(Pool1d(Conv1d(time series))
• image vector vector = Pool2d(Conv2d(Pool2d(Conv2d(image data))
• text vector = Pool1d(Conv1d(Pool1d(Conv1d(Embedding(text data)))
• tabular data vector = FC(FC(tabular data)) => X = FC(FC(time series vector, tabular data vector, text vector, image vector)) The nice thing with DL, you can train on multiple targets at once using multiple target heads: Y_1 ~ LR(X), Y_2 ~ LogReg(X)

Recommender Engine

Netflix matrix factorization Recsys paper A multi-task framework for metric learning with common subspace Linkedin linkedy DGCN: Diversified Recommendation with Graph Convolutional Networks recsys

Recommender Engine might be one of the most PROFITABLE Machine Learning Model paradigms right now but I think it doesn’t get the recognition it deserves! There are many ways to generate money with ML but the niche business applications where Rec Engines are typically used makes it a more certain high ROI ML application in general. The business value of Rec engines is clear: personalized matching between a user and a product. That is the bread and butter of many big tech companies:

• search engine: Google search, Amazon Product Search, …
• Ads ranking: Google and Meta generate 65% of the world digital ad revenue
• Feed ranking: FB, Instagram, LinkedIn, …
• Product Recommendation: Netflix’s landing page, …

The modern approach to Rec Engine can be tracked back to the 2006 Netflix Recommendation contest (https://lnkd.in/ds6WWEG3) where the Latent Matrix Factorization method won second place (https://lnkd.in/dz4q7Xnx). Surprise is a nice python implementation: http://surpriselib.com/. In a supervised learning term, we use user data, product data and context data as input to estimate the affinity of a user to a product: affinity ~ F(user data, product data, context data). Those algorithms are peculiar because we want to use the same user and product population at training time than inference time: in a sense, we want to overfit on the user behavior.

Now Deep Learning dominates the field by extending on the original linear models and it led to many new NN architectures. Embeddings provide a natural mechanism to featurize the large users and products spaces and their related behavior history. Some architecture examples:

• Multi gate Mixture of Experts for Youtube videos recommendation: https://lnkd.in/dE6XZvJx
• Multi-Task Metric Learning for multi-staged inference when the product space is too large: https://lnkd.in/dSpiR9GA, https://lnkd.in/dZErXbpE
• Two Tower models for retrieval: https://lnkd.in/dh3Xtmyc
• Multi-tower model for ads ranking in Pinterest: https://lnkd.in/d_uPNSAH
• Diversified recommendation with Graph Convolutional Networks: https://lnkd.in/dfcVYeDJ
• Autoencoder-based recommender: https://lnkd.in/dET64Pvs

This is an interesting space and a valuable expertise to have those days. I wish there were more textbooks on the subject! One to get started: https://lnkd.in/deMyYw5e

How to detect Data Drift

There is one simple technique I like to use to detect DATA DRIFT for Machine Learning applications. First, take a current data set and let’s call it X_now. Then let’s take an old data set and let’s call it X_old. You could imagine having different X_old for different time scales: 1 week ago, 1 month ago, 1 year ago, … Let’s now create an artificial target Y_now where all the values are 1 and another Y_old where all the values are 0. Y_old would be paired with the X_old samples and Y_now with the X_now ones. We can concatenate X_now with X_old and Y_now with Y_old:

X = [X_now, X_old]
Y = [Y_now, Y_old]

Now take that data (X,Y) and train a Supervised Learning algorithm that has a good built-in Feature Importance measurement process. For example, I like to take a Random Forest algorithm that has typically a Feature Importance measured as a mean entropy or Gini gain per split through the whole forest. If one or few features are coming out as having a high feature importance to predict that artificial target, this is a strong evidence that those features have been drifting over time!

What techniques do you like to use to detect Data Drift?

One common technique to detect data drift in machine learning applications is to compare the statistical properties of different data distributions over time. Here are a few techniques commonly used to detect data drift:

1. Monitoring Descriptive Statistics: Track key descriptive statistics, such as mean, standard deviation, or skewness, for relevant features in the dataset. Any significant changes in these statistics over time can indicate data drift.

2. Statistical Hypothesis Testing: Apply statistical tests to compare the distributions of different datasets. For example, you can use the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the Anderson-Darling test, or the Mann-Whitney U test to check if the data distributions are significantly different.

3. Drift Detection Methods: There are specific drift detection methods designed to identify changes in data distributions. Examples include the Drift Detection Method (DDM), the Page-Hinkley Test, the Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT), and the Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) algorithm. These methods analyze incoming data incrementally and raise an alarm when a significant change is detected.

4. Machine Learning Model Monitoring: Track the performance of your machine learning models over time. Monitor metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, or the area under the ROC curve (AUC-ROC). A significant drop in performance can indicate a drift in the data.

5. Feature Importance Analysis: Use feature importance techniques to assess which features have the most impact on model predictions. If the importance of certain features changes significantly over time, it suggests that those features may be drifting.

6. Domain Expert Knowledge: Incorporate domain expertise to identify potential sources of data drift. Experts can provide insights into changes in the data-generating process, external factors impacting the data, or shifts in user behavior that might affect the data distribution.

It’s important to note that data drift detection is an ongoing process, and there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Different techniques may be more suitable depending on the specific problem, the nature of the data, and the available resources. Combining multiple methods and continuously monitoring the data can help you identify and address data drift in machine learning applications.

• The technique described in the provided explanation is one way to detect data drift by leveraging supervised learning algorithms and feature importance analysis. The reasoning behind setting Y_old (target for old data) to all 0 and Y_now (target for current data) to all 1 is to create an artificial target variable that represents a binary classification problem. This allows us to train a supervised learning algorithm to predict whether a data sample belongs to the old or new dataset.

• By concatenating X_old with X_now and Y_old with Y_now, we create a combined dataset (X, Y) where the algorithm can learn to differentiate between the old and new data samples. The intention is to analyze the feature importance provided by the trained model. If specific features are assigned high importance in predicting the artificial target (i.e., distinguishing between old and new data), it suggests that those features have changed or drifted over time.

• Data drift refers to changes in the underlying data distribution over time, which can impact the performance and reliability of machine learning models. By training a model to distinguish between old and new data and examining the feature importance, we can identify which features contribute significantly to discriminating between the datasets. If the importance of certain features is high, it indicates that those features have undergone substantial changes or drift, potentially influencing the model’s performance when applied to new data.

• In summary, by training a model to discriminate between old and new data and analyzing the feature importance, this technique aims to identify features that have changed over time, serving as an indicator of data drift. It provides insights into which features contribute most to the distinction between datasets and highlights potential shifts or inconsistencies in the data that might affect model performance.

How to decompose Bias and Variance from the Data

Have you ever tried to compute the BIAS and VARIANCE separately from the data? It is not as simple as one may think! I think we all know the typical decomposition formula (https://lnkd.in/gjQ3n7fj):

E[(y - f(x))^2] = Bias[f]^2 + Var[f] + sigma^2 with Bias[f] = E[f(x)] - f(x)

But did you realize that the Expected value and Variance range over different realizations of the training data D = (X, Y) sampled from the same probability distribution P(X,Y)? To obtain the Mean Square Error (MSE) you need then to run an expected value over the instance distribution this time

MSE = E_x[E[(y - f(x))^2]]

Estimating E_x[.] is easy, you just need to run a sum over the test set: sum(.) / N, where N is the number of samples in the test set. But how do you go about the first expectation?

One way I find intuitive to understand (https://lnkd.in/g49Q9Tjr) is to create M bootstrap samples of the training data D and to train your learner L on each of those sample. For each instance of the test set you can then predict M different values for each of the trained learners. And then you can estimate the expected value for each instance as

mean = sum_i [ f(x_i) ]/ M variance = sum_i [ (f(x_i) - mean)^2 ]/ (M - 1)

And easily estimate the local Bias and Variance for each instance and then average over all the instances in the test set to get MSE.

The following article compares 3 different methods to estimate the Bias and Variance decomposition on real data: https://lnkd.in/gptRH8gp

Is that something you have been wondering about?

Feature Selection Method

This is a technique I like to perform a quick FEATURE SELECTION for Machine Learning applications. I tend to call it the “Random Bar” method! Let’s assume you have a feature set X and a target Y. Let’s create a random vector V (for example np.random.normal(size=(1, 100))) and append that vector as a new feature to X:

X’ = [X, V]

X’ is just the original feature set with additionally the new random feature. Keep in mind that this new feature cannot possibly help to predict the target Y since it is random! Now, take that data (X’, Y) and train a Supervised Learning algorithm with a Feature Importance measure that is relevant for you application. Intuitively, the mean entropy gain per split of tree based algorithms (Random Forest, Xgboost, …) is a convincing measure of feature importance to me. The statistical fluctuation of the data is such that even the random feature will be attributed a non-zero feature importance by the algorithm, but we know it is artificial. Any feature with a lower feature importance than the random feature has to be useless to predict the target and the features with a higher feature importance are at least better than random noise at predicting the target.

This is especially useful if you have thousands of features and you want to weed out quickly the ones that won’t have any impact in the learning process. This is also a method that can be used for highly non-linear data as opposed to LASSO (for example) that tends to only understand linear relationships in the data. The random feature is a “Random Bar” because this is the minimum bar a feature needs to beat to be a part of the potentially useful features set. Now it doesn’t mean there are not additional features that could be beneficial to further remove to optimize your model. Do you know if this method has a more jargon-y name?

What is your favorite feature selection method?

Self Instruct aligning language models with self generated instructions

Sergio Valmorisco Sierra Sergio Valmorisco Sierra • 2nd Global Senior Data Scientist at JLL 3h • 3 hours ago

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Large “instruction-tuned” language models (finetuned to respond to instructions) have demonstrated a remarkable ability to generalize zero-shot to new tasks. Nevertheless, they depend heavily on human-written instruction data that is limited in quantity, diversity, and creativity, therefore hindering the generality of the tuned model. In this work, the authors introduce SELF-INSTRUCT, a semi-automated process for instruction-tuning a pretrained LM using instructional signals from the model itself.

The overall process is an iterative bootstrapping algorithm, which starts off with a limited (175 in their study) seed set of manually-written instructions that are used to guide the overall generation. In the first phase, the model is prompted to generate more broad-coverage instructions that define (often new) tasks. Given the newly-generated set of instructions, the framework also creates input-output instances for them, which can be later used for supervising the instruction tuning. Finally, various measures are used to prune low-quality and repeated instructions. This process can be repeated for many interactions until reaching a large number of tasks.

Applying their method to vanilla GPT-3, the authors demonstrate a 33% absolute improvement over the original model on the SUPER-NATURALINSTRUCTIONS dataset, on par with the performance of InstructGPT001, which is trained with private user data and human annotations. For further evaluation, they curate a set of expert-written instructions for novel tasks, and show through human evaluation that tuning GPT-3 with SELF-INSTRUCT outperforms using existing public instruction datasets by a large margin, leaving only a 5% absolute gap behind InstructGPT001.

Code and data: https://lnkd.in/d_Wd52Uu Paper: https://lnkd.in/dS8wuBBh